essay代写_传媒学essay写作高分范文

发布时间：2021-01-18 热度：

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大众媒体，例如电视，广播和社交媒体平台，是政党和候选人在选举活动中向选民提供选举材料和广告的一种常用方法。

每个美国人平均每天在电视，广播和其他在线社交平台上花费超过10个小时。传统大众媒体的影响自1900年代以来就得到了证明，一些研究声称媒体内容将极大地影响公众对政治事件和人物的观点和反应。付费广告和赚钱媒体对于政客树立形象并获得选民认可很重要。

亨特·汤普森（Hunter S. Thompson）在《恐惧与厌恶：72年竞选路线》一书中提到：“唯一真正真正对1972年大选感兴趣的人是实际参与者，包括各种候选人，有薪工作人员，成千上万的人。记者，摄影师和其他与媒体有联系的骗子……”，他强调了媒体参与选举活动的重要性（Thompson，1973）。尽管汤普森是麦格文的坚定支持者，但他一再批评麦格文在媒体面前没有足够的媒体曝光和缺乏感召力（汤普森，1973）。有人说，学习如何利用媒体来谋取自己的优势是变得更加“政治化”的方式。所有这些证据都支持了媒体确实对政治选举产生强大影响的理论。

此外，由于技术的发展和通讯方式的变化，几乎每个人都被链接在一起，并通过各种社交媒体平台定期相互交流。因此，社交媒体在选举广告中变得越来越重要。在选举期间甚至选举开始之前，有数百万美元用于政治广告。在2012年奥巴马总统和雷姆尼之间的总统大选期间，两位候选人都在电视上投放了约20亿美元的政治广告。此外，2012年互联网广告的金额已达到1.59亿美元，因此可以通过每个网站上的弹出广告从政治上了解大多数互联网用户。大众媒体在塑造选民的态度和反应方面有多么有用和强大的影响？由于通过传统媒体平台和互联网社交媒体在政治广告上花费了不可思议的巨额资金，因此在审查媒体在美国政治选举中对舆论的影响力时，必须同时考虑这两个类别。

Mass media, such as television, radio, and social media platforms, is a common approach for political parties and candidates to inform voters with electoral materials and advertisements in election campaigns.

On average, each American spends over 10 hours every day on television, radio, and other online social platforms. The influence of traditional mass media has been proven since 1900s, and several studies claimed that media contents would significantly affect public opinions and responses on political events and figures. Paid advertising and earned media are important for politicians to build images and get recognized by voters.

In the book ‘Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail ’72,’ Hunter S. Thompson mentioned that ‘The only people who seem genuinely interested in the 1972 elections are the actual participants—the various candidates, their paid staff people, the thousands of journalists, cameramen & other media-connected hustlers…,’ and he emphasized the importance of media engagement in the election campaigns (Thompson, 1973). Even though Thompson was a definite McGovern supporter, he repeatedly criticized McGovern for not enough media exposure and lack of charisma before the press (Thompson, 1973). It is told that learning how to use the media to one’s advantage is the way to become more ‘political.’ All of these evidences support the theory that media did have powerful influences on political elections.

In addition, almost everyone is linked and regularly communicates with each other through various social media platforms due to technological development and changes in communication methods. Thus, social media becomes more vital in the election advertisement. Millions of dollars were spent on political advertisement during elections or even before the elections start. During the 2012 presidential election between President Obama and Mr. Remney, both candidates spent approximately 2 billion dollars on political advertisement on television. Also, the amount of Internet advertising had reached 159 million dollars in 2012, so that the majority of Internet users could be informed politically through pop-up advertisements on every website. How useful and powerful influences do mass medias have in shaping voters’ attitudes and responses? With this incredible large amount of money spent on political advertisement through both traditional media platform and internet social media, both two categories need to be considered when examining the power of media on public opinion in U.S. political elections.

传统媒体在大选中的力量

传统媒体，包括电视，广播和报纸，是政党和候选人向选民提供信息和交流的最重要的竞选工具。在各种类型的大众媒体中，电视被广泛认为是最有效的一种。选举期间，每次打开电视时，全国公民都可以看到候选人之间的辩论，各党派的新闻声明以及采访。

尽管媒体参与竞选活动的基本目的是公平地报道和传播客观信息，但在真实情况下总是会出现偏爱和虚假陈述。许多媒体平台通常选择广播他们喜欢的政党和候选人的政治声明，而不必担心法律法规（Browning and Sweetser，2020年）。执政党将为自己的利益操纵媒体。没有研究结果表明，媒体的高曝光率可以保证在竞选中获胜，但是缺乏媒体和数字媒体的参与往往会造成损失。适当地利用媒体力量可以帮助政党和候选人使更多的公民了解他们的观点，建立更具吸引力的声誉，塑造选民的态度（Browning and Sweetser，2020）。

“恐惧与厌恶：竞选之路'72'是关于1972年尼克松与麦戈文的竞选活动，目的是提高公众对美国大选发生的一系列问题的认识，包括腐败，肮脏的政治和种族歧视。在这本书中，汤普森描述了错误的信息，无休止的消极情绪，选民的态度以及在1972年选举中两名候选人之间的激烈辩论和攻击（Doherty，2017年）。

很明显，汤普森讨厌尼克松并支持麦戈文的思想和政治立场。然而，汤普森表示他对麦戈文赢得首届竞选的各种挫折的负面情绪（汤普森，1973年）。他写了关于麦戈文的条件，即“职业警察和新闻界的巫师说他只是缺乏“魅力”，但这是一个廉价而简单的想法，比麦戈文更是对选民的侮辱，”和“他没有钱，没有新闻界。 ，没有认可，也没有摄影机的存在……”（汤普森，1973年）。相反，尽管尼克松的政治思想很可笑，但尼克松的“一口好牙，一大笔钱和六个媒体专家”帮助他赢得了总统大选。汤普森（Thompson）严厉批评那些轻蔑的媒体，因为他们在报道政治声明时缺乏客观性，并公开反对麦戈文的竞选活动（Thompson，1973）。从这本伟大的书中可以汲取的教训是，永远不要低估大众媒体在政治运动中的力量。

另一方面，一些早期研究的结果表明结果是负面的。例如，约翰·扎勒（John Zaller，2002）应用统计和数学方法来研究媒体曝光在政治运动中的影响。从个案模拟中得出并分析了结果，在个案模拟中，个人受到了不同程度的媒体影响（Zaller，2002）。在分析调查时，考虑了两种重要的运动效应，包括启动效应和滞后效应（Zaller，2002）。启动效应是指导致立即支持或反对候选人决定的启动效应，而滞后效应则是指在很长一段时间后逐渐影响人们态度的那种效应（Zaller，2002）。

线性，指数和非单调的结果表明，选举活动中媒体曝光的影响没有预期的强大（Zaller，2002）。尽管在模拟过程中有很多可能影响研究的问题，但这些阴性结果仍然有效。考虑到大众媒体的普遍性和信息呈现的垄断性，扎勒的研究可能会引起人们对媒体在社会和政治上的影响的怀疑，同时还需要进一步的研究。

The power of traditional media in early elections

The traditional media, including television, radio and newspaper, is the most important campaign tools for political parties and candidates to inform and communicate with the voters. Among the different types of mass media, television is widely regarded as the most effective one. During the election, citizens in the whole country can see the debates between candidates, press statement of each party, and interviews every time they opened the television.

Even though the basic aim of media engagement in election campaigns is to fairly report and disseminate objective information, preference and misrepresentation always happens in real cases. A large number of media platforms often choose to broadcast the political statements of the parties and candidates they prefer without worrying about the laws and regulations (Browning and Sweetser, 2020). The governing party would manipulate the media for their advantage. No research results show that high media exposure can guarantee wins in the election campaigns, but lack of presences through the press and digital media often would result in losses. Proper use of the media power can help political parties and candidates to get more citizens to understand their opinion, build a more appealing reputation, shaping voters’ attitudes (Browning and Sweetser, 2020).

‘Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail ’72’ was about the 1972 Nixon versus McGovern campaign with the intension of raising the public awareness on a collection of issues taking place in the U.S. elections, including corruptions, dirty politics, and racial discriminations. In this book, Thompson described the misinformation, endless negativity, voters’ attitudes, as well as heated debate and attacks between two candidates in the 1972 election (Doherty, 2017).