Anthropology人类学代考，代写论文

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KEY TERMS

Comparative Anatomy: involves comparing the body structures of two species. 'Comparative' means to look at the similarities between two things, and 'anatomy' has to do with the structure of the body. Scientists can look at anatomical structures of seemingly unrelated animals to tell how related they are.


Clade: a group of organisms that consists of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants, and represents a single "branch" on the "tree of life"

Primate Common Ancestors
oPlesiadapis
oProconsul

Primates: a mammal of an order that includes the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, marmosets, monkeys, apes, and humans


Prosimians: Belong to the Strepsirrhine Clade (“wet nosed”) except for Tarsiers
oThey are considered to have characteristics that are more "primitive" (ancestral) than those of simians (monkeys, apes, and humans)

Simians/Anthropoids: Belong to the Haplorhine Clade (“dry-nosed”)

*Your textbook goes into incredible detail on the diet, the anatomy, and the social behaviors of the different types of primates. You do not need to know all of that, but you should be able to discuss some of the diversity between primate groups and why that diversity is important. HINT, think about the social behavior of primates!  There will be NO questions that require you to know the Latin species classification names of any primates… I promise!

Difference between Old World and New World Monkeys
oThe noses of New World monkeys are flatter than the narrow noses of the Old World monkeys, and have side-facing nostrils.
oNew World monkeys are the only monkeys with prehensile tails—in comparison with the shorter, non-grasping tails of the anthropoids of the Old World

Different Diets and Niche Partitioning 
oOmnivores
oLeaf-Eaters
oFruit-Eaters
oInsect-Eaters

oThis difference in diets allows for niche partitioning and creates cooperative, social behaviors:
oPrimate species in the same forest will use different parts
oDifferent diets: insects, leaves, fruits, nuts, harder plant materials, and even meat found in different areas of the environment
oMinimizes competition and encourages social behavior


Different Types of Locomotion and Social Behavior
oLocomotion: movement or the ability to move from one place to another; biology reflects movement and environmental adaptations
oFirst make the broad distinction between arboreal and terrestrial locomotion—that is, does the primate spend most of its time in tress or on the ground
oTerrestrial: Quadrupedalism and Knuckle-walking (gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos); opposable thumbs!
oArboreal: Brachiating (for Gibbons) and prehensile tail (for New World Monkeys)
oAgain, we see that these different forms of movement correspond to adaptations to different environments and this has led to greater degrees of cooperation between primate species


Generalized Teeth and a Mostly Omnivorous Diet and Social Behaviors
oDental Formula: the numerical description of a species’ teeth, listing the number in one quadrant of the jaws, of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
oAllows for flexibility
oAllows for sharing! Social Behavior
oSometimes, the teeth don’t match the diet
oLemurs have a tooth comb: used for social grooming not chewing food
oGorillas have large canines: used to display dominance, particularly between males (dominance hierarchies) rather than for chewing their vegetarian diet

Living in Social Groups
oResidence Patterns (see chart 7.2 in your textbook)
oPolygynous (one male, multiple females; gorillas are an example)
oPolyandrous (one female, multiple males; tamarins are an example)
oMonogamous/Pair Bonding (gibbons are an example)
oMultimale, Multifemale (highly promiscuous; chimpanzees are an example)
oSolitary (often a female and her offspring; or a group of young males; orangutans are an example)
oThink about how these groups work out their conflicts and how they promote cooperation
Dominance hierarchies
Equal communities
Sharing
Social Grooming

Affiliative Behavior: Formation and maintenance of social relationships through grooming, play, sitting in contact, and other friendly behaviors


Reciprocal Altruism:  behaviors that temporarily reduces an individual’s fitness while increasing another organism's fitness, with the expectation that the other organism will act in a similar manner at a later time

Sex and Parental Investment: investment in offspring by the parent that increases the offspring's chances of surviving and hence reproductive success at the expense of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring
oTwo strategies: invest in mating or invest rearing
oFemales typically have one offspring per pregnancy so they will invest in rearing
oMales can have many, many, more offspring than females so they may invest in mating

Allogrooming:  Social grooming performed by one animal upon another animal of the same species to form or reaffirm social bonds


Primate grooming coalitions: has led to not only greater levels of social interaction, but a larger neocortex of the brain! Has this paved the way for culture in primates?
oTool use: termite sticks, hammers
oLanguage: vocalizations that are specific to a group rather than a species (learned!) and nonverbal gestures (likewise learned!)